Why Did the Senate Vote to Establish a Republic and Never Again Allow a King to Rule Rome Quizlet

The Establishment of the Roman Democracy

Afterwards the publicoutcry that arose every bit a result of the rape of Lucretia, Romans overthrew the unpopular king, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, and established a republican class of regime.

Learning Objectives

Explain why and how Rome transitioned from a monarchy to a republic

Key Takeaways

Central Points

• The Roman monarchy was overthrown around 509 BCE, during a political revolution that resulted in the expulsion of Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, the last king of Rome.
• Despite waging a number of successful campaigns against Rome's neighbors, securing Rome'southward position as head of the Latin cities, and engaging in a serial of public works, Tarquinius was a very unpopular male monarch, due to his violence and abuses of power.
• When word spread that Tarquinius's son raped Lucretia, the married woman of the governor of Collatia, an uprising occurred in which a number of prominent patricians argued for a change in government.
• A full general election was held during a legal associates, and participants voted in favor of the institution of a Roman republic.
• Later on, all Tarquins were exiled from Rome and an interrex and two consuls were established to atomic number 82 the new republic.

Key Terms

• patricians: A grouping of ruling class families in aboriginal Rome.
• plebeians: A full general body of free Roman citizens who were function of the lower strata of society.
• interrex: Literally, this translates to hateful a ruler that presides over the menstruation between the rule of two separate kings; or, in other words, a short-term regent.

The Roman monarchy was overthrown around 509 BCE, during a political revolution that resulted in the expulsion of Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, the concluding male monarch of Rome. Later on, the Roman Commonwealth was established.

Background

Tarquinius was the son of Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, the fifth king of Rome'south Seven Kings period. Tarquinius was married to Tullia Minor, the daughter of Servius Tullius, the 6th king of Rome's Seven Kings menstruum. Effectually 535 BCE, Tarquinius and his married woman, Tullia Minor, arranged for the murder of his father-in-constabulary. Tarquinius became king post-obit Servius Tullius's death.

Tarquinius waged a number of successful campaigns confronting Rome'south neighbors, including the Volsci, Gabii, and the Rutuli. He besides secured Rome'due south position equally caput of the Latin cities, and in a serial of public works, such every bit the completion of the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus. Still, Tarquinius remained an unpopular rex for a number of reasons. He refused to bury his predecessor and executed a number of leading senators whom he suspected remained loyal to Servius. Post-obit these actions, he refused to replace the senators he executed and refused to consult the Senate in matters of government going forward, thus diminishing the size and influence of the Senate greatly. He also went on to approximate uppercase criminal cases without the advice of his counselors, stoking fear amongst his political opponents that they would be unfairly targeted.

The Rape of Lucretia and An Uprising

Titian's Tarquin and Lucretia (1571).

Tarquin and Lucretia

During Tarquinius's state of war with the Rutuli, his son, Sextus Tarquinius, was sent on a military errand to Collatia, where he was received with bang-up hospitality at the governor'south mansion. The governor's wife, Lucretia, hosted Sextus while the governor was away at war. During the night, Sextus entered her bedroom and raped her. The next 24-hour interval, Lucretia traveled to her father, Spurius Lucretius, a distinguished prefect in Rome, and, before witnesses, informed him of what had happened. Because her father was a chief magistrate of Rome, her pleas for justice and vengeance could not be ignored. At the end of her pleas, she stabbed herself in the heart with a dagger, ultimately dying in her own father's arms. The scene struck those who had witnessed it with such horror that they collectively vowed to publicly defend their liberty against the outrages of such tyrants.

Lucius Junius Brutus, a leading citizen and the grandson of Rome's fifth male monarch, Tarquinius Priscus, publicly opened a debate on the grade of regime that Rome should have in identify of the existing monarchy. A number of patricians attended the debate, in which Brutus
proposed the adjournment of the Tarquins from all territories of Rome, and the appointment of an interrex to nominate new magistrates and to oversee an ballot of ratification. It was decided that a republican course of government should temporarily supercede the monarchy, with two consuls replacing the king and executing the will of a patrician senate. Spurius Lucretius was elected interrex, and he proposed Brutus, and Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus, a leading citizen who was also related to Tarquinius Priscus, as the first two consuls. His option was ratified by the comitia curiata, an arrangement of patrician families who primarily ratified decrees of the king.

In social club to rally the plebeians to their cause, all were summoned to a legal associates in the forum, and Lucretia's trunk was paraded through the streets. Brutus gave a voice communication and a general ballot was held. The results were in favor of a republic. Brutus left Lucretius in control of the urban center as interrex, and pursued the king in Ardea where he had been positioned with his regular army on campaign. Tarquinius, however, who had heard of developments in Rome, fled the camp before Brutus arrived, and the regular army received Brutus favorably, expelling the rex's sons from their encampment. Tarquinius was subsequently refused entry into Rome and lived as an exile with his family.

The Institution of the Republic

Brutus and Lucretia: The statue shows Brutus holding the knife and swearing the oath, with Lucretia.

Although there is no scholarly agreement as to whether or not it really took identify, Plutarch and Appian both claim that Brutus's first deed as delegate was to initiate an adjuration for the people, swearing never again to allow a rex to rule Rome. What is known for certain is that he replenished the Senate to its original number of 300 senators, recruiting men from among the equestrian grade. The new consuls also created a separate office, called the rex sacrorum, to carry out and oversee religious duties, a task that had previously fallen to the king.

The ii consuls continued to be elected annually by Roman citizens and advised by the senate. Both consuls were elected for one-year terms and could veto each other's deportment. Initially, they were endowed with all the powers of kings past, though over time these were broken downwards farther past the addition of magistrates to the governmental system. The first magistrate added was the praetor, an office that assumed judicial authority from the consuls. Subsequently the praetor, the conscience was established, who assumed the power to bear the Roman demography.

Structure of the Republic

The Roman Democracy was composed of the Senate, a number of legislative assemblies, and elected magistrates.

Learning Objectives

Describe the political structure of the Roman Republic

Key Takeaways

Fundamental Points

• The Constitution of the Roman Republic was a set of guidelines and principles passed downwardly, mainly through precedent. The constitution was largely unwritten and uncodified, and evolved over time.
• Roman citizenship was a vital prerequisite to possessing many important legal rights. The Senate passed decrees that were called senatus consulta, ostensibly "advice" from the senate to a magistrate. The focus of the Roman Senate was unremarkably foreign policy.
• There were two types of legislative assemblies. The first was the comitia ("committees"), which were assemblies of all Roman citizens. The 2nd was the concilia ("councils"), which were assemblies of specific groups of citizens.
• The comitia centuriata was the assembly of the centuries (soldiers), and they elected magistrates who had imperium powers (consuls and praetors). The comitia tributa, or assembly of the tribes (the citizens of Rome ), was presided over past a consul and equanimous of 35 tribes. They elected quaestors, curule aediles, and armed services tribunes.
• Dictators were sometimes elected during times of war machine emergency, during which the constitutional government would be disbanded.

Key Terms

• patricians: A group of ruling course families in ancient Rome.
• plebeian: A general torso of free Roman citizens who were function of the lower strata of society.
• Roman Senate: A political institution in the ancient Roman Commonwealth. It was not an elected body, simply one whose members were appointed past the consuls, and subsequently by the censors.

The Constitution of the Roman Republic was a set of guidelines and principles passed down, mainly through precedent. The constitution was largely unwritten and uncodified, and evolved over time. Rather than creating a authorities that was primarily a commonwealth (as was ancient Athens), an aristocracy (as was aboriginal Sparta), or a monarchy (every bit was Rome before, and in many respects after, the Republic), the Roman constitution mixed these three elements of governance into their overall political system. The democratic element took the form of legislative assemblies; the aristocratic element took the form of the Senate; and the monarchical element took the class of the many term-express consuls.

The Roman SPQR Banner: "SPQR" (senatus populusque romanus) was the Roman motto, which stood for "the Senate and people of Rome".

The Roman Senate

The Senate'southward ultimate authority derived from the esteem and prestige of the senators, and was based on both precedent and custom. The Senate passed decrees, which were chosen senatus consulta, ostensibly "advice" handed down from the senate to a magistrate. In exercise, the magistrates usually followed the senatus consulta. The focus of the Roman Senate was usually foreign policy. Notwithstanding, the power of the Senate expanded over time as the ability of the legislative assemblies declined, and eventually the Senate took a greater role in civil law-making. Senators were unremarkably appointed by Roman censors, but during times of war machine emergency, such every bit the ceremonious wars of the 1^st century BCE, this practice became less prevalent, and the Roman dictator, triumvir, or the Senate itself would select its members.

Curia Iulia – The Roman Senate House: The Curia Julia in the Roman Forum, the seat of the imperial Senate.

Legislative Assemblies

Roman citizenship was a vital prerequisite to possessing many of import legal rights, such as the rights to trial and appeal, marriage, suffrage, to hold office, to enter binding contracts, and to relish special tax exemptions. An adult male denizen with full legal and political rights was called optimo jure. The optimo jure elected assemblies, and the assemblies elected magistrates, enacted legislation, presided over trials in capital cases, declared war and peace, and forged or dissolved treaties. There were ii types of legislative assemblies. The commencement was the comitia ("committees"), which were assemblies of all optimo jure. The 2nd was the concilia ("councils"), which were assemblies of specific groups of optimo jure.

Citizens on these assemblies were organized further on the basis of curiae (familial groupings), centuries (for military purposes), and tribes (for civil purposes), and each would each gather into their own assemblies. The Curiate Assembly served only a symbolic purpose in the late Republic, though
the assembly was used to ratify the powers of newly elected magistrates by passing laws known as leges curiatae. The comitia centuriata was the associates of the centuries (soldiers). The president of the comitia centuriata was usually a consul, and the comitia centuriata would elect magistrates who had imperium powers (consuls and praetors). It also elected censors. Only the comitia centuriata could declare war and ratify the results of a census. It also served as the highest court of entreatment in certain judicial cases.

The assembly of the tribes, the comitia tributa, was presided over by a consul, and was equanimous of 35 tribes. The tribes were not indigenous or kinship groups, only rather geographical subdivisions. While it did not laissez passer many laws, the comitia tributa did elect quaestors, curule aediles, and military tribunes. The Plebeian Quango was identical to the assembly of the tribes, just excluded the patricians. They elected their own officers, plebeian tribunes, and plebeian aediles. Unremarkably a plebeian tribune would preside over the associates. This assembly passed virtually laws, and could also act equally a court of appeal.

Since the tribunes were considered to be the embodiment of the plebeians, they were sacrosanct. Their sacrosanctness was enforced past a pledge, taken by the plebeians, to kill whatever person who harmed or interfered with a tribune during his term of office. As such, it was considered a capital offense to harm a tribune, to disregard his veto, or to interfere with his actions. In times of armed forces emergency, a dictator would exist appointed for a term of vi months. The constitutional government would exist dissolved, and the dictator would be the absolute master of the state. When the dictator's term ended, constitutional authorities would be restored.

Executive Magistrates

Magistrates were the elected officials of the Roman republic. Each magistrate was vested with a degree of power, and the dictator, when there was ane, had the highest level of power. Below the dictator was the conscience (when they existed), and the consuls, the highest ranking ordinary magistrates. 2 were elected every year and wielded supreme power in both civil and military powers. The ranking among both consuls flipped every calendar month, with i outranking the other.

Below the consuls were the praetors, who administered ceremonious police force, presided over the courts, and commanded provincial armies. Censors conducted the Roman census, during which time they could appoint people to the Senate. Curule aediles were officers elected to conduct domestic affairs in Rome, who were vested with powers over the markets, public games, and shows. Finally, at the bottom of magistrate rankings were the quaestors, who usually assisted the consuls in Rome and the governors in the provinces with financial tasks. Plebeian tribunes and plebeian aediles were considered representatives of the people, and acted as a popular cheque over the Senate through use of their veto powers, thus safeguarding the ceremonious liberties of all Roman citizens.

Each magistrate could only veto an action that was taken past an equal or lower ranked magistrate. The nearly significant constitutional power a magistrate could agree was that of imperium or control, which was held simply by consuls and praetors. This gave the magistrate in question the constitutional authority to issue commands, armed services or otherwise.

Election to a magisterial office resulted in automatic membership in the Senate for life, unless impeached. Once a magistrate'southward annual term in office expired, he had to expect at least ten years before serving in that office again. Occasionally, however, a magistrate would have his control powers extended through prorogation, which effectively allowed him to retain the powers of his role as a promagistrate.

Roman Order Under the Democracy

The bulk of Roman politics prior to the 1st century BCE focused on inequalities among the orders.

Learning Objectives

Describe the relationship betwixt the government and the people in the time of the Roman Democracy

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• A number of developments afflicted the relationship betwixt Rome 'due south republican government and
  society, specially in regard to how that human relationship differed among patricians and plebeians.
• In 494 BCE, plebeian soldiers refused to march against a wartime enemy, in order to demand the correct to elect their own officials.
• The passage of Lex Trebonia forbade the co-opting of colleagues to fill vacant positions on tribunes in order to sway voting in favor of patrician blocs over plebeians.
• Throughout the 4th century BCE, a series of reforms were passed that required all laws passed past the plebeian council to have the total strength of law over the entire population. This gave the plebeian tribunes a positive political impact over the entire population for the start time in Roman history.
• In 445 BCE, the plebeians demanded the right to stand for election as delegate. Ultimately, a compromise was reached in which consular control authority was granted to a select number of military tribunes.
• The Licinio-Sextian law was passed in 367 BCE; information technology addressed the economic plight of the plebeians and prevented the election of further patrician magistrates.
• In the decades following the passage of the Licinio-Sextian law, further legislation was enacted that granted political equality to the plebeians. Nonetheless, it remained difficult for a plebeian from an unknown family to enter the Senate, due to the ascension of a new patricio-plebeian aristocracy that was less interested in the plight of the average plebeian.

Key Terms

• patricians: A grouping of ruling form families in ancient Rome.
• plebeian: A general body of free Roman citizens who were part of the lower strata of society.

In the first few centuries of the Roman Republic, a number of developments affected the relationship between the regime and the Roman people, especially in regard to how that relationship differed across the separate strata of society.

The Patrician Era (509-367 BCE)

The final king of Rome, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, was overthrown in 509 BCE. 1 of the biggest changes that occurred every bit a result was the establishment of ii chief magistrates, called consuls, who were elected by the citizens of Rome for an annual term. This stood in stark contrast to the previous organization, in which a king was elected by senators, for life. Built in to the consul system were checks on authority, since each consul could provide balance to the decisions made by his colleague. Their express terms of office also opened them upward to the possibility of prosecution in the result of abuses of power. All the same, when consuls exercised their political powers in tandem, the magnitude and influence they wielded was hardly dissimilar from that of the erstwhile kings.

In 494 BCE, Rome was at war with 2 neighboring tribes, and plebeian soldiers refused to march against the enemy, instead seceding to the Aventine Hill. In that location, the plebeian soldiers took advantage of the situation to demand the right to elect their own officials. The patricians assented to their demands, and the plebeian soldiers returned to battle. The new offices that were created equally a result came to be known every bit "plebeian tribunes," and they were to be assisted past "plebeian aediles."

In the early years of the democracy, plebeians were not permitted to hold magisterial part. Tribunes and aediles were technically non magistrates, since they were only elected by fellow plebeians, equally opposed to the unified population of plebeians and patricians. Although plebeian tribunes regularly attempted to block legislation they considered unfavorable, patricians could still override their veto with the support of one or more than other tribunes. Tension over this imbalance of power led to the passage of Lex Trebonia, which forbade the co-opting of colleagues to make full vacant positions on tribunes in lodge to sway voting in favor of one or another bloc. Throughout the 4th century BCE, a series of reforms were passed that required all laws passed by the plebeian quango to have equal forcefulness over the entire population, regardless of status as patrician or plebeian. This gave the plebeian tribunes a positive political affect over the unabridged population for the first time in Roman history.

Gaius Gracchus: This 18th century drawing shows Gaius Gracchus, tribune of the people, presiding over the plebeian quango.

In 445 BCE, the plebeians demanded the right to stand for election equally delegate. The Roman Senate initially refused them this right, simply ultimately a compromise was reached in which consular control dominance was granted to a select number of military machine tribunes, who, in turn, were elected by the centuriate assembly with veto power being retained by the senate.

Effectually 400 BCE, during a series of wars that were fought against neighboring tribes, the plebeians demanded concessions for the disenfranchisement they experienced as foot soldiers fighting for spoils of war that they were never to encounter. As a result, the Licinio-Sextian law was eventually passed in 367 BCE, which addressed the economic plight of the plebeians and prevented the election of farther patrician magistrates.

The Conflict of the Orders Ends (367-287 BCE)

In the decades following the passage of the Licinio-Sextian law, further legislation was enacted that granted political equality to the plebeians. Withal, information technology remained difficult for a plebeian from an unknown family to enter the Senate. In fact, the very presence of a long-continuing dignity, and the Roman population's deep respect for it, made information technology very difficult for individuals from unknown families to exist elected to loftier function. Additionally, elections could be expensive, neither senators nor magistrates were paid for their services, and the Senate usually did not reimburse magistrates for expenses incurred during their official duties, providing many barriers to the entry of loftier political office by the not-affluent.

Ultimately, a new patricio-plebeian aristocracy emerged and replaced the old patrician nobility. Whereas the old patrician nobility existed simply on the footing of being able to run for office, the new aristocracy existed on the basis of affluence. Although a small number of plebeians had accomplished the aforementioned standing as the patrician families of the past, new plebeian aristocrats were less interested in the plight of the average plebeian than were the old patrician aristocrats. For a time, the plebeian plight was mitigated, due higher employment, income, and patriotism that was wrought by a serial of wars in which Rome was engaged; these things eliminated the threat of plebeian unrest. Only by 287 BCE, the economic conditions of the plebeians deteriorated equally a result of widespread indebtedness, and the plebeians sought relief. Roman senators, most of whom were also creditors, refused to give in to the plebeians' demands, resulting in the first plebeian secession to Janiculum Hill.

In gild to finish the plebeian secession, a dictator, Quintus Hortensius, was appointed. Hortensius, who was himself a plebeian, passed a law known every bit the "Hortensian Law." This police concluded the requirement that an auctoritas patrumbe passed before a nib could be considered by either the plebeian council or the tribal assembly, thus removing the terminal patrician senatorial cheque on the plebeian council. The requirement was not changed, however, in the centuriate assembly. This provided a loophole through which the patrician senate could nevertheless deter plebeian legislative influence.

Art and Literature in the Roman Republic

Culture flourished during the Roman Republic with the emergence of dandy authors, such as Cicero and Lucretius, and with the development of Roman relief and portraiture sculpture.

Learning Objectives

Recognize the broad extent of fine art and literature created during the Roman Republic

Primal Takeaways

Fundamental Points

• Roman literature was, from its very inception, influenced heavily by Greek authors. Some of the primeval works we possess are of historical epics that tell the early military history of Rome. Even so, authors diversified their genres as the Republic expanded.
• Cicero is one of the most famous Republican authors, and his letters provide detailed information about an important flow in Roman history.
• Romans typically produced historical sculptures in relief, as opposed to Greek free-standing sculpture. Modest sculptures were considered luxury items, while moulded relief decoration in pottery vessels and pocket-size figurines were produced in great quantities for a wider section of the population.
• The most well-known surviving examples of Roman painting consist of the wall paintings from Pompeii and Herculaneum that were preserved in the aftermath of the fatal eruption of Mountain Vesuvius in 79 CE.
• Veristic portraiture is a hallmark of Roman art during the Democracy, though its use began to diminish during the 1st century BCE as civil wars threatened the empire and individual strong men began amassing more power.

Key Terms

• Cicero: A Roman philosopher, politician, lawyer, orator, political theorist, consul, and constitutionalist.
• veristic portraiture: A hyper-realistic portrayal of the subject's facial characteristics; a common style of portraiture in the early to mid-Commonwealth.

Literature

Roman literature was, from its very inception,  heavily influenced by Greek authors. Some of the earliest works nosotros possess are historical epics telling the early military history of Rome, similar to the Greek ballsy narratives of Homer, Herodotus, and Thucydides. Virgil, though by and large considered to be an Augustan poet, represents the pinnacle of Roman epic verse. His Aeneid tells the story of the flight of Aeneas from Troy, and his settlement of the metropolis that would become Rome. As the Commonwealth expanded, authors began to produce poetry, comedy, history, and tragedy. Lucretius, in his De rerum natura (On the Nature of Things), attempted to explicate science in an ballsy poem. The genre of satire was also common in Rome, and satires were written past, among others, Juvenal and Persius.

The Age of Cicero

Bust of Cicero: A mid-get-go century CE bust of Cicero, in the Capitoline Museums, Rome.

Cicero has traditionally been considered the master of Latin prose. The writing he produced from approximately 80 BCE until his expiry in 43 BCE, exceeds that of any Latin author whose work survives, in terms of quantity and variety of genre and subject matter. It also possesses unsurpassed stylistic excellence. Cicero's many works tin can be divided into iv groups: letters, rhetorical treatises, philosophical works, and orations. His letters provide detailed information about an important flow in Roman history, and offers a vivid picture of public and private life among the Roman governing class. Cicero'southward works on oratory are our most valuable Latin sources for ancient theories on education and rhetoric. His philosophical works were the basis of moral philosophy during the Middle Ages, and his speeches inspired many European political leaders, equally well as the founders of the United states.

Art

Early Roman art was greatly influenced by the fine art of Hellenic republic and the neighboring Etruscans, who were also profoundly influenced by Greek art via trade. As the Roman Republic conquered Greek territory, expanding its imperial domain throughout the Hellenistic world, official and patrician sculpture grew out of the Hellenistic way that many Romans encountered during their campaigns, making it hard to distinguish truly Roman elements from elements of Greek manner. This was specially truthful since much of what survives of Greek sculpture are actually copies fabricated of Greek originals by Romans. By the second century BCE, most sculptors working within Rome were Greek, many of whom were enslaved following military conquests, and whose names were rarely recorded with the piece of work they created. Vast numbers of Greek statues were likewise imported to Rome as a result of conquest as well as merchandise.

Rather than create free-continuing works depicting heroic exploits from history or mythology, as the Greeks had, the Romans produced historical works in relief. Small sculptures were considered luxury items and were oftentimes the object of client-patron relationships. The silvery Warren Cup and glass Lycurgus cup are examples of the high quality works that were produced during this flow. For a wider section of the population, moulded relief decoration in pottery vessels and small figurines were produced in smashing quantities, and were often of bully quality.

In the 3rd century BCE, Greek fine art taken during wars became popular, and many Roman homes were decorated with landscapes by Greek artists.

Of the vast body of Roman painting that once existed, only a few examples survive to the modern-age. The most well-known surviving examples of Roman painting are the wall paintings from Pompeii and Herculaneum, that were preserved in the aftermath of the fatal eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE. A large number of paintings also survived in the catacombs of Rome, dating from the 3rd century CE to 400, prior to the Christian age, demonstrating a continuation of the domestic decorative tradition for use in apprehensive burial chambers.Wall painting was not considered high fine art in either Hellenic republic or Rome. Sculpture and console painting, usually consisting of tempera or encaustic painting on wooden panels, were considered more prestigious fine art forms.

A big number of Fayum mummy portraits, bust portraits on wood added to the outside of mummies by the Romanized middle class, exist in Roman Egypt. Although these are in some ways distinctively local, they are also broadly representative of the Roman style of painted portraits.

Roman portraiture during the Republic is identified by its considerable realism, known every bit veristic portraiture. Verism refers to a hyper-realistic portrayal of the subject's facial characteristics. The way originated from Hellenistic Hellenic republic; withal, its use in Republican Rome and survival throughout much of the Democracy is due to Roman values, customs, and political life. As with other forms of Roman art, Roman portraiture borrowed certain details from Greek art, only adapted these to their own needs. Veristic images often show their male bailiwick with receding hairlines, deep winkles, and fifty-fifty with warts. While the face of the portrait was ofttimes shown with incredible detail and likeness, the torso of the subject area would be idealized, and did not seem to correspond to the age shown in the face.

Bust of an Onetime Man: Veristic portraiture of an One-time Man. Verism refers to a hyper-realistic portrayal of the discipline'southward facial characteristics.

Portrait sculpture during the period utilized youthful and classical proportions, evolving later into a mixture of realism and idealism. Advancements were also fabricated in relief sculptures, often depicting Roman victories. The Romans, however, completely lacked a tradition of figurative vase-painting comparable to that of the ancient Greeks, which the Etruscans had as well emulated.

The Late Republic

The employ of veristic portraiture began to diminish during the Belatedly Republic in the 1st century BCE. During this time, ceremonious wars threatened the empire and individual men began to gain more power. The portraits of Pompey the Great and Julius Caesar, two political rivals who were also the nearly powerful generals in the Republic, began to change the mode of portraits and their use. The portraits of Pompey the Great were neither fully idealized, nor were they created in the same veristic way of Republican senators. Pompey borrowed a specific departing and curl of his hair from Alexander the Great, linking Pompey visually to Alexander'southward likeness, and triggering his audience to acquaintance him with Alexander's characteristics and qualities.

Bust of Pompey the Great: The portraits of Pompey the Groovy were neither fully idealized, nor were they created in the same veristic style of Republican senators. This bust conspicuously shows the specific parting and roll of his hair that would have likened him to Alexander the Neat.

Republican Wars and Conquest

By the end of the mid-Republic, Rome had achieved armed services dominance on both the Italian peninsula and within the Mediterranean.

Learning Objectives

Describe the key results and furnishings of major Republican wars

Central Takeaways

Key Points

• Early Roman Republican wars were wars of both expansion and defence, aimed at protecting Rome from neighboring cities and nations, and establishing its territory within the region.
• The Samnite Wars were fought against the Etruscans and effectively finished off all vestiges of Etruscan power by 282 BCE.
• By the middle of the 3rd century and the cease of the Pyrrhic War, Rome had effectively dominated the Italian peninsula and won an international military reputation.
• Over the course of the 3 Punic Wars, Rome completely defeated Hannibal and razed Carthage to the ground, thereby acquiring all of Carthage'south North African and Spanish territories.
• After four Macedonian Wars, Rome had established its first permanent foothold in the Greek world, and divided the Macedonian Kingdom into four customer republics.

Key Terms

• Punic Wars: A serial of three wars fought betwixt Rome and Carthage, from 264 BCE to 146 BCE, that resulted in the complete destruction of Carthage.
• Pyrrhus: Greek general and statesman of the Hellenistic era. Later on he became king of Epirus (r. 306-302, 297-272 BCE) and Macedon (r. 288-284, 273-272 BCE). He was one of the strongest opponents of early Rome. Some of his battles, though successful, toll him heavy losses, from which the term "Pyrrhic victory" was coined.

Roman Conquest of the Italian Peninsula: This map shows the expansion of Roman territory through the diverse wars fought during the Republican menstruum.

Early Republic

Early on Campaigns (458-396 BCE)

The commencement Roman Republican wars were wars of both expansion and defence, aimed at protecting Rome from neighboring cities and nations, equally well every bit establishing its territory in the region. Initially, Rome'southward firsthand neighbors were either Latin towns and villages or tribal Sabines from the Apennine hills across. One by one, Rome defeated both the persistent Sabines and the nearby Etruscan and Latin cities. By the stop of this catamenia, Rome had effectively secured its position against all firsthand threats.

Expansion into Italy and the Samnite Wars (343-282 BCE)

The First Samnite War, of 343 BCE-341 BCE, was a relatively short affair. The Romans crush the Samnites in 2 battles, merely were forced to withdraw from the state of war before they could pursue the conflict farther, due to the revolt of several of their Latin allies in the Latin State of war. The Second Samnite War, from 327 BCE-304 BCE, was much longer and more serious for both the Romans and Samnites, but by 304 BCE the Romans had effectively annexed the greater part of the Samnite territory and founded several colonies therein. 7 years after their defeat, with Roman dominance of the area seemingly assured, the Samnites rose once more and defeated a Roman ground forces in 298 BCE, to open up the 3rd Samnite War. With this success in paw, they managed to bring together a coalition of several of Rome's enemies, but by 282 BCE, Rome finished off the last vestiges of Etruscan power in the region.

Pyrrhic War (280-275 BCE)

By the first of the 3rd century BCE, Rome had established itself as a major power on the Italian Peninsula, simply had not yet come into conflict with the ascendant military powers in the Mediterranean Basin at the fourth dimension: the Carthage and Greek kingdoms. When a diplomatic dispute between Rome and a Greek colony erupted into a naval confrontation, the Greek colony appealed for military machine aid to Pyrrhus, ruler of the northwestern Greek kingdom of Epirus. Motivated by a personal desire for armed forces accomplishment, Pyrrhus landed a Greek army of approximately 25,000 men on Italian soil in 280 BCE. Despite early victories, Pyrrhus found his position in Italy untenable. Rome steadfastly refused to negotiate with Pyrrhus as long as his ground forces remained in Italy. Facing unacceptably heavy losses with each run into with the Roman regular army, Pyrrhus withdrew from the peninsula (thus giving ascent to the term "pyrrhic victory").

In 275 BCE, Pyrrhus again met the Roman army at the Battle of Beneventum. While Beneventum'south outcome was indecisive, information technology led to Pyrrhus's
complete withdrawal from Italy, due to the decimation of his army post-obit years of strange campaigns, and the diminishing likelihood of further material gains. These conflicts with Pyrrhus would have a positive consequence on Rome. Rome had shown information technology was capable of pitting its armies successfully confronting the dominant military powers of the Mediterranean, and that the Greek kingdoms were incapable of defending their colonies in Italian republic and abroad. Rome speedily moved into southern Italia, subjugating and dividing the Greek colonies. By the eye of the 3^rd century, Rome effectively dominated the Italian peninsula, and had won an international military reputation.

Mid-Democracy

Punic Wars

The Showtime Punic War began in 264 BCE, when Rome and Carthage became interested in using settlements within Sicily to solve their own internal conflicts. The war saw state battles in Sicily early on, but focus soon shifted to naval battles around Sicily and Africa. Before the First Punic War, at that place was essentially no Roman navy. The new state of war in Sicily against Carthage, a swell naval power, forced Rome to rapidly build a fleet and train sailors. Though the first few naval battles of the First Punic War were catastrophic disasters for Rome, Rome was eventually able to beat the Carthaginians and go out them without a armada or sufficient funds to enhance some other. For a maritime power, the loss of Carthage's access to the Mediterranean stung financially and psychologically, leading the Carthaginians to sue for peace.

Continuing distrust led to the renewal of hostilities in the Second Punic War, when, in 218 BCE, Carthaginian commander Hannibal attacked a Castilian town with diplomatic ties to Rome. Hannibal and then crossed the Italian Alps to invade Italy. Hannibal's successes in Italia began immediately, only his blood brother, Hasdrubal, was defeated after he crossed the Alps on the Metaurus River. Unable to defeat Hannibal on Italian soil, the Romans boldly sent an regular army to Africa under Scipio Africanus, with the intention of threatening the Carthaginian capital. Every bit a result, Hannibal was recalled to Africa, and defeated at the Boxing of Zama.

Carthage never managed to recover afterward the Second Punic War, and the Third Punic War that followed was, in reality, a simple castigating mission to raze the metropolis of Carthage to the ground. Carthage was virtually caught, and when besieged offered firsthand give up, conceding to a string of outrageous Roman demands. The Romans refused the surrender and the city was stormed and completely destroyed after a curt siege. Ultimately, all of Carthage's Due north African and Spanish territories were acquired past Rome.

Hannibal'due south Famous Crossing of the Alps: Depiction of Hannibal and his army crossing the Alps during the Second Punic War.

Macedon and Greece

Rome's preoccupation with its war in Carthage provided an opportunity for Philip V of the kingdom of Macedonia, located in the northern role of the Greek peninsula, to try to extend his power westward. Over the next several decades, Rome clashed with Macedon to protect their Greek allies throughout the First, Second, and Third Macedonian Wars. By 168 BCE, the Macedonians had been thoroughly defeated, and Rome divided the Macedonian Kingdom into four client republics. After a 4th Macedonian War, and most a century of constant crisis direction in Hellenic republic (which almost ever was a outcome of internal instability when Rome pulled out), Rome decided to divide Macedonia into two new Roman provinces, Achaea and Epirus.

Crises of the Republic

The 1st century BCE saw tensions between patricians and plebeians erupt into violence,  as the Republic became increasingly more than divided and unstable.

Learning Objectives

Explicate how crises in the 1st century BCE further destabilized the Roman Commonwealth

Primal Takeaways

Key Points

• Though the causes and attributes of individual crises varied throughout the decades, an underlying theme of disharmonize betwixt
  the elite and ordinary citizens collection the majority of actions.
• The Gracchi brothers, Tiberius and Gaius, introduced a number of populist agrarian and land reforms in the 130s and 120s BCE that were heavily opposed by the patrician Senate. Both brothers were murdered by mob violence afterward political stalemates.
• Political instability continued, every bit populist Marius and optimate Sulla engaged in a series of conflicts that culminated in Sulla seizing power and marching to Asia Modest against the decrees of the Senate, and Marius seizing power in a coup back at Rome.
• The Catilinarian Conspiracy discredited the populist party, in plow repairing the image of the Senate, which had come to be seen every bit weak and non worthy of such fierce assail.
• Under the terms of the Offset Triumvirate, Pompey 'southward arrangements would exist ratified and Caesar would exist elected delegate in 59 BCE; he subsequently served as governor of Gaul for v years. Crassus was promised the consulship afterwards.
• The triumvirate crumbled in the wake of growing political violence and Crassus and Caesar'southward daughter's death.
• A resolution was passed by the Senate that alleged that if Caesar did non lay down his arms by July 49 BCE, he would be considered an enemy of the Republic. Meanwhile, Pompey was granted dictatorial powers over the Democracy.
• On January ten, 49 BCE, Caesar crossed the Rubicon and marched towards Rome. Pompey, the consuls, and the Senate all abandoned Rome for Greece, and Caesar entered the city unopposed.

Cardinal Terms

• Gracchi Brothers: Brothers Tiberius and Gaius, Roman plebeian nobiles who both served every bit tribunes in the belatedly 2d century BCE. They attempted to pass land reform legislation that would redistribute the major patrician landholdings among the plebeians.
• plebeian: A general body of free Roman citizens who were
  part of the lower strata of society.
• patrician: A group of ruling class families in ancient Rome.

The Crises of the Roman Republic refers to an extended period of political instability and social unrest that culminated in the demise of the Roman Republic, and the appearance of the Roman Empire from nearly 134 BCE-44 BCE. The verbal dates of this menstruation of crisis are unclear or are in dispute from scholar to scholar. Though the causes and attributes of individual crises varied throughout the decades, an underlying theme of conflict between the aristocracy and ordinary citizens drove the majority of actions.

Optimates were a traditionalist majority of the late Roman Commonwealth. They wished to limit the power of the popular assemblies and the Tribune of the Plebeians, and to extend the power of the Senate, which was viewed equally more than dedicated to the interests of the aristocrats. In particular, they were concerned with the rising of private generals, who, backed by the tribunate, the assemblies, and their own soldiers, could shift power from the Senate and aristocracy. Many members of this faction were so-classified because they used the backing of the aristocracy and the Senate to achieve personal
goals, not necessarily because they favored the aristocracy over the lower classes. Similarly, the populists did not necessarily champion the lower classes, simply oft used their support to attain personal goals.

Following a period of slap-up military machine successes and economic failures of the early Republican period, many plebeian calls for reform amidst the classes had been quieted. However, many new slaves were being imported from away, causing an unemployment crisis among the lower classes. A overflowing of unemployed citizens entered Rome, giving rise to populist ideas throughout the city.

The Gracchi Brothers

Tiberius Gracchus took office every bit a tribune of the plebeians in belatedly 134 BCE. At the fourth dimension, Roman society was a highly stratified class system with tensions bubbling below the surface. This arrangement consisted of noble families of the senatorial rank (patricians), the knight or equestrian class, citizens (grouped into ii or iii classes of self-governing allies of Rome: landowners; and plebs, or tenant freemen, depending on the time catamenia), non-citizens who lived outside of southwestern Italy, and at the bottom, slaves. The government owned large tracts of farm land that information technology had gained through invasion or escheat. This state was rented out to either big landowners whose slaves tilled the land, or small-scale tenant farmers who occupied the property on the basis of a sub-lease. Beginning in 133 BCE, Tiberius tried to redress the grievances of displaced small tenant farmers. He bypassed the Roman Senate, and passed a police limiting the corporeality of land belonging to the country that whatever individual could farm, which resulted in the dissolution of large plantations maintained by rich landowners on public land.

A political back-and-along ensued in the Senate as the other tribune, Octavius, blocked Tiberius's initiatives, and the Senate denied funds needed for state reform. When Tiberius sought re-ballot to his one-year term (an unprecedented action), the oligarchic nobles responded by murdering Tiberius, and mass riots bankrupt out in the metropolis in reaction to the assassination. Most nine years later, Tiberius Gracchus'due south younger brother, Gaius, passed more radical reforms in favor of the poorer plebeians. Once once again, the situation concluded in violence and murder every bit Gaius fled Rome and was either murdered by oligarchs or committed suicide. The deaths of the Gracchi brothers marked the beginning of a late Republic trend in which tensions and conflicts erupted in violence.

Gaius Gracchus Addressing the People: Silvestre David Mirys' rendition of the the tribune, Gaius Gracchus, addressing the people of Rome.

Marius and Sulla

The side by side major reformer of the time was Gaius Marius, who similar the Gracchi, was a populist who championed the lower classes. He was a general who abolished the belongings requirement for becoming a soldier, which allowed the poor to enlist in large numbers. Lucius Cornelius Sulla was appointed every bit Marius'southward quaestor (supervisor of the financial affairs of the country) in 107 BCE, and afterwards competed with Marius for supreme ability. Over the adjacent few decades, he and Marius engaged in a series of conflicts that culminated in Sulla seizing power and marching to Asia Minor against the decrees of the Senate. Marius launched a coup in Sulla'due south absence, putting to death some of his enemies and instituting a populist regime, simply died before long after.

Bosom of Sulla: The bust of Lucius Cornelius Sulla, an optimate who marched against Rome and installed himself equally dictator in 82-81 BCE.

Pompey, Crassus, and the Catilinarian Conspiracy

In 77 BCE, two of Sulla'south former lieutenants, Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus ("Pompey the Great") and Marcus Licinius Crassus, had left Rome to put downwards uprisings and found the populist party, attacking Sulla's constitution upon their return. In an attempt to forge an understanding with the populist political party, both lieutenants promised to dismantle components of Sulla's constitution that the populists found disagreeable, in render for being elected consul. The two were elected in 70 BCE and held truthful to their word. Four years afterward, in 66 BCE, a motility to utilise peaceful ways to accost the plights of the various classes arose; however, afterward several failures in achieving their goals, the movement, headed past Lucius Sergius Catilina and based in Faesulae, a hotbed of agrarian agitation, decided to march to Rome and instigate an uprising. Marcus Tullius Cicero, the consul at the time, intercepted messages regarding recruitment and plans, leading the Senate to authorize the assassination of many Catilinarian conspirators in Rome, an action that was seen every bit stemming from dubious authority. This effectively disrupted the conspiracy and discredited the populist party, in turn repairing the image of the Senate, which had come up to be seen equally weak and not worthy of such vehement assail.

Start Triumvirate

In 62 BCE, Pompey returned from campaigning in Asia to find that the Senate, elated past its successes against the Catiline conspirators, was unwilling to ratify any of Pompey'south arrangements, leaving Pompey powerless. Julius Caesar returned from his governorship in Kingdom of spain a year later and, along with Crassus, established a private agreement with Pompey known equally the Showtime Triumvirate. Under the terms of this understanding, Pompey's arrangements would exist ratified and Caesar would be elected consul in 59 BCE, subsequently serving as governor of Gaul for 5 years. Crassus was promised the consulship later.

When Caesar became consul, he saw the passage of Pompey'south arrangements through the Senate, at times using violent means to ensure their passage. Caesar as well facilitated the election of patrician Publius Clodius Pulcher to the tribunate in 58 BCE, and Clodius sidelined Caesar's senatorial opponents, Cato and Cicero. Clodius eventually formed armed gangs that terrorized Rome and began to attack Pompey's followers, who formed counter-gangs in response, marking the terminate of the political alliance betwixt Pompey and Caeser. Though the triumvirate was briefly renewed in the face of political opposition for the consulship from Domitius Ahenobarbus, Crassus's death during an expedition against the Kingdom of Parthia, and the death of Pompey's married woman, Julia, who was also Caesar's daughter, severed any remaining bonds between Pompey and Caesar.

Beginning in the summer of 54 BCE, a wave of political corruption and violence swept Rome, reaching a climax in Jan 52 BCE, when Clodius was murdered in a gang state of war. Caesar presented an ultimatum to the Senate on Jan 1, 49 BCE, which was ultimately rejected. Subsequently, a resolution was passed that alleged that if Caesar did not lay down his arms by July, he would exist considered an enemy of the Republic. The senators adopted Pompey as their champion, and on January 7, Pompey was granted dictatorial powers over the Commonwealth by the Senate. Pompey'south ground forces, however, was equanimous mainly of untested conscripts, and on Jan 10, Caesar crossed the Rubicon with his more experienced forces in defiance of Roman laws, and marched towards Rome. Pompey, the consuls, and the Senate all abased Rome for Hellenic republic, in the face up of Caeser'due south apace advancing forces, and Caesar entered the metropolis unopposed.

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Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/the-roman-republic/

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